Chronic use of morphine affects the immune system and predisposes an individual to opportunistic infections. Macrophages play an important role in conferring a first line of defense against invading pathogens. Understanding the mechanisms by which morphine affects the functioning of macrophages would have significant therapeutic benefit in treatment against infections such as HIV and AIDS related syndromes. Two of the major cytokines secreted by activated macrophages are Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha). Our studies show that morphine differentially modulates lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced expression of IL-6 and TNF-alpha. Nanomolar concentrations of morphine synergize with LPS and augment the secretion of both IL-6 and TNF-alpha. However, at micromolar concentrations morphine inhibits LPS induced synthesis of IL-6 and TNF-alpha. Expression of both these cytokine genes is dependent on the activation of a transcription factor, NF kappa B. Interestingly, morphine treatment also modulated the activation of NF kappa B by LPS. Pretreatment with a low dose of morphine (nanomolar) resulted in an increase in NF kappa B activation. In contrast pretreatment with a high dose of morphine (micromolar) led to a significant decrease in NF kappa B activation. Furthermore unlike the augmentation which was naloxone reversible, the inhibition of NF kappa B by morphine was not reversed by naloxone, suggesting the involvement of a nonclassical opioid receptor.
Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science
3
9%
Agricultural and Biological Sciences
3
9%
Other
6
18%
Unknown
8
24%
Attention Score in Context
Attention Score in Context
This research output has an Altmetric Attention Score of 3. This is our high-level measure of the quality and quantity of online attention that it has received. This Attention Score, as well as the ranking and number of research outputs shown below, was calculated when the research output was last mentioned on 20 May 2025.
All research outputs
#12,345,171
of 34,364,397 outputs
Outputs from Biochemical & Biophysical Research Communications
#12,780
of 33,079 outputs
Outputs of similar age
#20,284
of 47,849 outputs
Outputs of similar age from Biochemical & Biophysical Research Communications
#113
of 209 outputs
Altmetric has tracked 34,364,397 research outputs across all sources so far. This one is in the 38th percentile – i.e., 38% of other outputs scored the same or lower than it.
So far Altmetric has tracked 33,079 research outputs from this source. They typically receive a little more attention than average, with a mean Attention Score of 5.2. This one is in the 22nd percentile – i.e., 22% of its peers scored the same or lower than it.
Older research outputs will score higher simply because they've had more time to accumulate mentions. To account for age we can compare this Altmetric Attention Score to the 47,849 tracked outputs that were published within six weeks on either side of this one in any source. This one is in the 7th percentile – i.e., 7% of its contemporaries scored the same or lower than it.
We're also able to compare this research output to 209 others from the same source and published within six weeks on either side of this one. This one is in the 1st percentile – i.e., 1% of its contemporaries scored the same or lower than it.
