Title |
Toxins as biological weapons for terror—characteristics, challenges and medical countermeasures: a mini-review
|
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Published in |
Disaster and Military Medicine, April 2016
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DOI | 10.1186/s40696-016-0017-4 |
Pubmed ID | |
Authors |
Tamar Berger, Arik Eisenkraft, Erez Bar-Haim, Michael Kassirer, Adi Avniel Aran, Itay Fogel |
Abstract |
Toxins are hazardous biochemical compounds derived from bacteria, fungi, or plants. Some have mechanisms of action and physical properties that make them amenable for use as potential warfare agents. Currently, some toxins are classified as potential biological weapons, although they have several differences from classic living bio-terror pathogens and some similarities to manmade chemical warfare agents. This review focuses on category A and B bio-terror toxins recognized by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Botulinum neurotoxin, staphylococcal enterotoxin B, Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin, and ricin. Their derivation, pathogenesis, mechanism of action, associated clinical signs and symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment are discussed in detail. Given their expected covert use, the primary diagnostic challenge in toxin exposure is the early detection of morbidity clusters, apart from background morbidity, after a relatively short incubation period. For this reason, it is important that clinicians be familiar with the clinical manifestations of toxins and the appropriate methods of management and countermeasures. |
X Demographics
Geographical breakdown
Country | Count | As % |
---|---|---|
United States | 4 | 40% |
United Kingdom | 2 | 20% |
India | 2 | 20% |
Belarus | 1 | 10% |
Switzerland | 1 | 10% |
Demographic breakdown
Type | Count | As % |
---|---|---|
Members of the public | 7 | 70% |
Scientists | 2 | 20% |
Science communicators (journalists, bloggers, editors) | 1 | 10% |
Mendeley readers
Geographical breakdown
Country | Count | As % |
---|---|---|
Unknown | 98 | 100% |
Demographic breakdown
Readers by professional status | Count | As % |
---|---|---|
Student > Bachelor | 17 | 17% |
Researcher | 15 | 15% |
Student > Ph. D. Student | 15 | 15% |
Student > Master | 11 | 11% |
Student > Doctoral Student | 4 | 4% |
Other | 7 | 7% |
Unknown | 29 | 30% |
Readers by discipline | Count | As % |
---|---|---|
Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology | 20 | 20% |
Agricultural and Biological Sciences | 9 | 9% |
Medicine and Dentistry | 7 | 7% |
Chemistry | 7 | 7% |
Engineering | 3 | 3% |
Other | 18 | 18% |
Unknown | 34 | 35% |